The dentist or dental auxiliary is responsible for understanding and recognizing diseases of the teeth, mucous membranes and jawbones. This knowledge is based on principles of pathology as they relate to the head, neck and oral structures.

      Members of the dental team can readily observe the patient at each appointment. By a carefully planned, routine examination, one can recognize both normal and diseased states. Many conditions can be diagnosed readily when they are first observed; others will have characteristic features that may indicate several possible disease states. In that case, further investigation will be required to help make a more definitive diagnosis. Findings and observations should be noted and referral made as deemed appropriate for either diagnosis or treatment of the condition.

      Observation is the key element in identifying health or disease. The oral environment can be viewed easily. Thus, by eye examination alone disease entities can be found. That is not to say that palpation and other measures for diagnosis are not important but visualization is the main element.

Examination Procedure

      With knowledge of what is normal and of what one expects to see, one can routinely perform a systematic examination. This will take a short time and may yield fruitful information about the health status of the patient. The examination must be routine, preplanned , and orderly so as not to miss something. Preferably it should be done at each visit. The specific order can vary from examiner to examiner. However, it is most important to keep the same sequence of examination every time to ensure thoroughness.

      Using primarily inspection and palpation, the following method of examination is offered as a basis for establishing a logical order and sequence. The materials needed are a good light, a dental mirror, 2 X 2 gauze, a dental explorer and periodontal probe. The patient may be asked to remove eyeglasses, earrings, and other removable items such as removable dentures.

1. Generalized appraisal of the patient
2. Face
3. Submental and submandibular lymph node areas
4. Parotid area including lymph nodes
5. Temporomandibular joint area
6. Ears
7. Neck and cervical lymph nodes including supraclavicular nodes
8. Thyroid gland area

1. Lips and corners of the mouth
2. Mucous membranes of lips, labial and buccal vestibule, gingivae, buccal mucosae, papillae of the parotid ducts
3. Hard palate and palatal gingivae
4. Soft palate
5. Tonsillar areas and posterior pharynx
6. Tongue – dorsum (papillae), ventrum (veins, fimbriated folds), lateral borders (foliate papillae, bilateral)
7. Floor of the mouth and lingual gingivae
8. Teeth (occlusion, caries, other defects)

Extraoral Examination

      The clinical examination of the patient should begin with a general overall evaluation of the individual. Observe the patient as s/he walks to the dental chair. Attitude may be readily ascertained as in the patient who will not make eye to eye contact and who may look the other way. On shaking hands, a patient with extremely large hands may have the disease acromegaly. Swollen ankles may indicate edema due to a kidney or a heart problem. The medical and dental history should be reviewed before the examination begins.

On viewing and palpating the face, the examiner should observe whether or not there is basic symmetry (Figure 1.1). Although most faces have some asymmetry, an obvious asymmetry may be due to a dental problem, particularly if associated with pain. An abscess of a tooth or the periodontal tissues is a common cause for facial swelling, once trauma is ruled out (Figures 1.2 and 1.3).     Figure 1.1 Facial view showing essential symmetry. Note that in this case the left side of the patient's face looks a bit larger because the head is turned to the patient's right side slightly. Figure 1.2. Facial view of patient in distress with face showing selling on the left side. The swelling is a cellulitis and is related to a broken-down molar tooth with an abscess. A radiograph of the area is seen on Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3. Periapical radiograph of patient in Figure 1.2, showing badly dexayed molar tooth and two periapical radioluciencies at each apex. The facial swelling was due to spread of infection and inflammation from the periapical pathology.         Pigmented lesions such as moles and age spots and ulcers such as with skin cancers are readily observable and should be questioned (Figures 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6). A rash on the skin of the face may be due to an allergy which can lead to more knowledge about the history of the patient and about future treatment plans. Some asymmetries may be due to swollen lymph nodes or glands. On doing the facial and head and neck examination, the examiner should palpate all of the areas of known lymph nodes regardless of swellings since a swollen gland may be only palpable and not visible. Figure 1.4. Facial view of patient with a large, pigmented mole on the right side of her face. The mole has melanin pigment. Extra melanin pigment (chloasma or melasma) is noted particularly over the patient’s upper lip due to the taking of oral contraceptives. Figure 1.5. Side of face, anterior to the ear. There are two pigmented lesions. The dark-brown, larger one with irregular borders is a melanoma, a malignant skin tumor of nevus cells. The yellowish lesion (arrow) to the left of the melanoma is a seborrheic keratosis or "age spot." Figure 1.6. Basal cell carcinoma, low-grade malignant tumor of skin on side of nose. It is a non-healing, crater-like ulcer with rolled margins.       Lymph nodes are concentrations of lymphatic tissue with T cells, B cells and macrophages which recognize antigens and mount a response. When a lymph node responds, it undergoes a hyperplasia with an increase in the numbers of cells. This causes the gland or tissue to enlarge so that it may become palpable. A major component of the immune surveillance system, lymphatic tissue responds to inflammation, infections and malignant tumors. Any of these may cause an enlargement. For inflammation and infection, the nodes may be swollen and tender and movable. After the insult or injury subsides, then, within weeks or months, the node will return to a more normal size. However, sometimes, as when there is scar tissue or calcification in the node, it will not return to normal size and will stay enlarged. When a tumor grows within a lymph node (lymphatic metastasis), the node will be enlarged, usually, non-tender, and may not be movable, especially if the tumor has invaded to the outside of the node. Thus, exactly what palpating a lymph node (positive lymphadenopathy) means cannot readily be known. Other findings must be used to determine the significance. For example, a patient with an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold, may have several enlarged, tender nodes due to the drainage from the affected tissue sites to the nodes. They will get smaller some time after the infection has passed. Tumor bearing nodes on the other hand will not regress but will continue to expand. The patient would need a medical workup to find the tumor.

Lymph nodes are oval or bean-shaped structures found along lymphatic vessels that drain body parts. Normally, they are non-tender, soft and cannot be felt even though they are present. Therefore, one uses the knowledge of anatomical location of the nodes to perform the palpation to find them (Figure 1.7). The examiner kneads just beneath the skin with a rotating motion in the areas that nodes would be expected to be found. In most circumstances they will not be felt. however, in young children, with response to so many new antigens, it is easy to palpate nodes in the head and neck.         A logical place to start palpating for nodes is in the submental area (Figures 1.8 and 1.9), below and lingual to the chin, against the mylohyoid muscle. This node is significant because it is the one node that is easy to discover the site of drainage. The lower lip, lower anterior gingivae, corners of the mouth, and skin and tissue of the chin drain to the submental node. Thus, palpating a node there, one should look for a possible lesion in those sites. All of the other lymph nodes do not have as direct a relationship to the area that they may drain as there are interconnections with other nodes and lymphatic vessels.

Figure 1.7. Simplified drawing of lymph glands and drainage scheme of the head and neck.

Figure 1.8. Palpation of the submental lymph node area with firm pressure and rotating the finger behind the chin.	Figure 1.9. Positive submental lymphadenopathy below the chin. It is enlarged from draining the severe acne skin lesions.

      The submandibular nodes are bilateral and can be palpated by pressing the tissue below the jaw against the medial side of the mandible or by bimanual palpation with one finger in the mouth and the other externally pushing up Figures 1.10 and 1.11). There are three groups of nodes associated with the submandibular gland. What one is actually palpating is the submandibular gland itself to identify these nodes.

Figure 1.10. Bimanual palpation of the submandibular gland areas for the gland and for lymph node swellings in the gland. They are in the notch areas of the body of mandible on the medial side as one pushes up and in.	Figure 1.11. Bilateral submandibular gland swellings due to reactive lymph nodes in a 24-year-old female with primary herpetic gingivostomatitis.

      Next are a group of nodes associated with the parotid gland. It is helpful to have the patient clench the teeth together to make the masseter muscle firm, against which one can palpate for any swellings. Then, one should move the ear lobe aside and look and feel behind the ear for postauricular nodes. At the same time as looking for nodes, one is looking for any other deviation of normal. Skin tumors may be found behind the ears.

      While at the ear, one can palpate the temporomandibular joint by having the patient open and close while the fingers are in the canal or near the tragus of the ear (Figure 1.12). Any clicking or deviation should be noted and further questions asked of the patient if this is found.

Figure 1.12. Palpation of the temporomandibular joints at the tragus of the ear as the patient opens and closes the mandible.	Figure 1.13. Bilateral palpation and gentle squeezing of the sternocleidomastoid muscle to locate the cervical chain of nodes just medial and deeper to the muscle.	Figure 1.14. Swollen lymph nodes in the postauricular area (left) and in the posterior cervical chain in the neck (right). Both cases were due to a bout of infectious mononucleosis in young women.

      Next, the cervical chains should be palpated (Figure 1.13). The posterior cervical chain is along the back of the neck (often positive in infectious mononucleosis and HIV+ patients) and the anterior and deep cervical chain is along the front (Figure 1.14). A landmark for tracing the anterior superficial and deep nodes is the sternocleidomastoid muscle. One can start behind the ear and trace the muscle to the clavicle. Nodes generally are deep and medial to the muscle, which is kneaded to try to find the nodes. Then, when reaching the clavicle, one palpates behind the clavicle and along it in the neck (Figure 1.15). These supraclavicular nodes may be enlarged from disease in the mediastinum or from the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland may be palpated by putting the fingers gently over the area and having the patient swallow, whereby the gland will pass beneath the fingers.

Intraoral Examination

      The oral examination can start with the lips. One should observe the vermilion border and the corners of the mouth for any deviation. For instance, patients who have been overexposed to the sunlight frequently have a loss of the vermilion line and whitish lesions and may have a premalignant lesion. Next, have the patient bring the teeth together to relax the lip muscles. Drape the upper and the lower lips and look at the mucous membrane sides down to the vestibule (Figure 1.16). On the upper lip, one should see a maxillary labial frenum as a normal structure. Often, there is a small tab or tag of normal appearing tissue hanging from this frenum (Figure 1.17). This is a mucosal tag and may get irritated if caught between the upper teeth. It is a variation of normal. Also noted in some patients along the upper lip near the vermilion are clusters of yellow-white submucosal pinhead glands that are called Fordyce glands (Figure 1.18). These are ectopic sebaceous glands that are not associated with any hairs. On retracting the lower lip (Figures 1.19 and 1.20), one may see fine white, slightly depressed lines, which are scars, usually from falling as a youngster. Also, if the lower lip is held for a while and dried, one can test the minor salivary glands of the lip by noting whether or not mucus is expressed from the many glands of the lower lip. One can also note the vestibule area, the gingivae and the anterior teeth.

Figure 1.15. Palpation of the supraclavicular area behind the clavicular bone.	Figure 1.16. Retraction of the upper lip with the teeth closed, revealing the inner lip, maxillary labial frenum, vestibule, gingivae with mucogingival line, and teeth. Also note the normal but slight melanin pigmentation of the gingiva.	Figure 1.17. Mucosal tags or tabs projecting from the maxillary labial frenum. Also, note the stippled gingivae and mucogingival line on the left.
Figure 1.18. Fordyce glands on inner aspect of upper lip. Ectopic sebaceous glands appear as submucosal yellowish, pin-head sized papular lesions, often gathered together in clusters as seen here in two patients.	Figure 1.19. Retraction of the lower lip with the teeth together, showing some white scars on the mucosal lip, the labial vestibule with a labial frenum the gingivae with some melanin pigmentation and the teeth with slight defects on #23 and #26.	Figure 1.20. Mucosal side of lower lip showing white scars (green arrows) and output of mucus as small almost clear beads of moisture. This lip was traumatized and also has some leukoplakia/non-removable white patches.

      Next, retract the corners of the mouth to reveal the buccal mucosae (Figure 1.21). Here, there are two normal landmarks. One is the papilla and opening of the parotid duct (Stensen). One can test the saliva existing from the duct by massaging on the side of the face where the parotid gland is located and observing the flow from the duct. It should be clear or watery since the parotid is mostly serous (Figure 1.22). A lack of flow or sluggish flow may indicate a dry mouth (xerostomia). Causes may be medication induced or radiation therapy, amongst others. A yellowish salivary flow usually indicates a bacterial infection in the parotid gland, requiring treatment.

Figure 1.21. Retraction of the cheek to view the buccal mucosa which includes the papilla of Stensen duct opposite the maxillary second molar and the occlusal or bite line opposite where the teeth occlude.	Figure 1.22. Buccal mucosa with a prominent papilla of Stensen duct with an expression of clear, watery saliva from the parotid gland. Also, note the large cluster of ectopic sebaceous glands, a common location.

      The other landmark on the buccal mucosa is a white line known as the occlusal or bite line, a horizontal line running from the corner of the mouth posteriorly where the teeth meet the mucosa (Figure 1.23). It can be very exaggerated in some patients and mimic disease.

Figure 1.23. Buccal mucosa with a prominent, white occlusal line and a prominent papilla of Stensen duct. The patient has a habit of sucking in the buccal mucosa and pressing the tongue against the teeth, producing the white lines.	Figure 1.24. Examination of the hard palate showing the incisive papilla, rugae, a whitened color due to the keratinized surface, the bluish color bilaterally due to the mucous glands and prominent blood vessels, and the linear alba or white line running down the center.

      The hard palate can be viewed next either directly of using a dental mirror (Figure 1.24). The anterior portion has prominent, firm folds called rugae that can be large in some patients. Posteriorly, the hard palate is whitish due to the keratinized surface. Laterally, where there are numerous minor salivary glands and blood vessels, there is a bluish hue. There are pin-sized, pink, ductal openings from minor glands. In smokers, they may be reddened and prominent against a whiter than normal background. There is also a linea alba or white line seen in the midline running anteriorly to posteriorly. At the posterior segment, in the midline, may be small depressions called fovea palatini, just anterior to the vibrating line of the palate.

      In the midline of the hard palate extra bone may be found (Figures 1.25, 2.34, and 2.35). Called a torus, it may be minimal or very enlarged. It will feel bony hard and will appear opaque on a radiograph confirming that it is composed of extra, but normal bone.

      Moving posteriorly with the examination, one envisions the soft palate which ends at a pendulous structure, the uvula (Figure 1.26). One may ask the patient to say "ah" or "eh" and see that the soft palate vibrates, also confirming the intactness of cranial nerve VIII.

Figure 1.25. Edentulous hard palate and soft palate showing a bony outgrowth in the midline that is called a maxillary torus. Note the difference in color between the soft and the hard palate, the soft palate being more pink due to lack of keratin.	Figure 1.26. Soft palate viewed with the tongue depressed by a dental mirror. Note the pink color, the uvula at the base, the bilateral fauces which enclose the palatine tonsils. The posterior pharyngeal wall is farthest posterior.

      In this posterior aspect of the soft palate is a circle of lymphoid tissue Waldeyer ring, including the tongue (Figure 1.27). The major tonsillar tissues are readily identifiable. The palatine tonsils are located on each side situated between the palatoglossal and the palatopharyngeal folds. They may be very large in children, appearing to close off the airway, but in adults they are usually receded between the folds. If only one palatine tonsil is enlarged and pushed toward the midline, then one should consider tumor, lateral pharyngeal abscess or other condition (Figure 1.28).

Figure 1.27. Diagram showing locations of tonsillar tissues in the oral cavity.	Figure 1.28. Enlarged palatine tonsils with some crypts showing at the surface.

      Tonsillar crypts are indentations that can become filled with bacteria. A large accumulation of bacteria in a crypt is a bacterial plug (Figure 1.29). It can cause a tickle in the throat and malodor. The bacterial plug is best diagnosed by expressing the yellow mass from the tonsil (Figure 1.30). Another lesion that may be noted in tonsillar tissue is the pseudocyst of the tonsil (Figure 1.31), also known as an oral lymphoepithelial cyst by some. It is formed by the closing over of the opening of the tonsillar crypt which then allows desquamating epithelial cells to accumulate, causing a raised, yellow lesion. Diagnosis is usually made by trying to express the yellow. In pseudocysts, there is a covering and the yellow cannot be readily expressed as in the bacterial plug. Eventually, the contents spontaneously are expressed. The lesion is one that need not be removed although they can be confused with a fatty tumor (lipoma). The pseudocyst can occur in any of the major and minor tonsillar tissues.

Figure 1.29. Bacterial plug filling a tonsillar crypt. It is a yellow plug composed primarily of bacteria with a few desquamated epithelial cells.	Figure 1.30. Bacterial plug filling a tonsillar crypt of the palatine tonsil, left. The yellowish plug of bacteria has been removed easily and shows the open crypt, right.	Figure 1.31. Pseudocyst/oral lymphoepithelial cyst of the palatine tonsil, left. Scraping this does not remove the yellow lesion which is covered by epithelium. This lesion spontaneously disappeared in about 4 months, right.

      Accessory tonsils may be noted at the posterior part of the soft palate, often near the base of the uvula (Figure 1.32). They may resemble a small tumor. However, they do get smaller after reacting to a stimulus and this gives a clue to their tonsillar origin.

      If the palatine tonsils have been removed, two findings may be present. One is a band of white that represents scar tissue. The other is a mass of tonsillar tissue called residual tonsil (Figure 1.33). These fleshy masses may become reactive remain enlarged. They represent foci that were not totally removed at the tonsillectomy.

Figure 1.32.      Accessory tonsil at the base of the uvula. It is pink, salmon colored, and may react and become bigger and smaller. It has a smooth surface in contrast to a papilloma which has a pebbly surface and can appear in this location.	Figure 1.33. Residual tonsils in the palatine tonsillar area. Scar tissue from the removal of the palatine tonsils is white. The lower residual tonsil has a pseudocyst/oral lymphoepithelial cyst.

      More tonsillar tissue can be noted by depressing the tongue down and having the patient say "ah". In the posterior pharyngeal wall are tissues that are tonsillar and can become reactive and then noted as bright pink, fleshy masses (Figures 1.34 and 1.35). Sometimes pseudocysts are noted in them. Also noted in some patients in this area is a yellow, white, sticky mucus plug (postnasal drip) (Figure 1.36).

Figure 1.34. Posterior pharyngeal wall in a patient who had a tonsillectomy. Note the raised reddish masses that are reactive pharyngeal tonsils.	Figure 1.35. Posterior pharyngeal wall with a yellow pseudocyst in a pharyngeal tonsil.	Figure 1.36. A white removable mass of mucus on the posterior pharyngeal wall in a patient who had removal of the palatine tonsils as well as the uvula.

      Tonsillar tissue is prominent at the very base of the tongue but is usually hard to visualize (Figures 1.37 and 1.38). Other tonsillar tissue in the tongue is noted on the lateral surfaces, most posteriorly, in the foliate papillae bilaterally (Figure 1.39). These are small reddened areas with small bumps and indentations. They may be very enlarged in smokers and do undergo reactive hyperplasia that may mimic a tumor (Figure 1.40). One should follow a reactive foliate papilla to see that it regresses. Bacterial plugs and pseudocysts may occur here also (Figure 1.41).

Figure 1.37. Vascular tonsillar tissue at the base of the tongue, green arrows. Some circumvallate papillae are anterior to the tonsillar tissue.	Figure 1.38. An enlarged lingual tonsil, Grey arrow. Also, a prominent foliate papilla (tonsillar tissue) at the posterior lateral surface of tongue, green arrow, and some circumvallate papillae, blue arrows.	Figure 1.39. Bilateral foliate papillae (tonsillar tissue) on the posterior lateral border of the tongue, green arrows. Also, note the largest of the lingual papillae, the circumvallate, blue arrows.
Figure 1.40. Two different patients with enlarged, reactive foliate papillae.	Figure 1.41. Two different patients with enlarged pseudocysts in the foliate papillae on the right side of the tongue.	Figure 1.42. Dorsal surface of the tongue showing the white filiform papillae and the red fungiform papillae.

      The tongue can be viewed next, by holding it with a gauze and gently moving it, or by having the patient move it from side to side, while holding the buccal mucosa to the side, and forward while opening wide. (This also checks cranial nerve XII.) Several anatomical entities can be checked. The filiform papillae are the most numerous ones. Having a keratinizing surface, they appear white or whitish (Figure 1.42). Sometimes the surface builds up yielding a coated or hairy tongue (Figure 1.43). Depending on circumstances, this coating can become colored, such as brown in heavy smokers or tea drinkers. Interpersed among the filiform papillae are small, pink, dome-shaped fungiform papillae, which may or may not have taste buds (Figure 1.44). The circumvallate papillae, the largest of the papillae, are present in the most posterior part of the tongue as two rows of structures forming an upside down "V", with pointing toward the throat (Figure 1.45). Sometimes they extend beyond the surface and can mimic small tumors. The true lingual tonsils (Figure 1.37) are beyond the circumvallate papillae and usually are seen only with a mirror reflecting light on them. The foliate papillae (Figures 1.38, 1.39 and 1.40) are bumps or grooves of tonsillar tissue on the lateral borders of the tongue at its most posterior segment where the tongue meets the floor of the mouth. It is important to visualize these because anterior to them is a site that can give rise to squamous cell cancer of the tongue. The base of the tongue is bluish because it is richly vascular.

Figure 1.43. Extension of the tongue with a gauze, showing the dorsal surface with elongated filiform papillae (hairy tongue).	Figure 1.44. Dorsal surface of tongue showing the white, keratotic filiform papillae and the larger, reddened fungiform papillae.	Figure 1.45. Dorsal surface of tongue showing a double row of circumvallate papillae running posteriorly to form a "V" shape. These are raised above the surface and mimic small "tumors."
Figure 1.46. Ventral surface of the tongue and the floor of the mouth in a patient with ankyloglossia or "tongue-tie." The lingual frenum is attached too far forward toward the tip of the tongue and the patient cannot touch the hard palate with the mouth open.	Figure 1.47. Normal ventral surface of the tongue showing the midline lingual frenum, and the two prominent lingual veins running on each side. Also, note the fimbriated folds or lines running parallel to the veins.	Figure 1.48. Varicose veins, ventral surface of the tongue in an older patient. These are dilated veins due to loss of elasticity and do not reflect any systemic condition.

      Next, have the patient open the mouth and try to touch the hard palate with the tongue. Some patients cannot perform this maneuver and it indicates a short lingual frenum in a condition called ankyloglossia or tongue-tie (Figure 1.46). In addition to noting the lingual frenum in the midline of the ventral surface of the tongue, one should visualize the large blue veins running lateral to it on each side (Figure 1.47). These can become prominent and in older patients there can be other, deeply blue veins that are prominent (varicose veins) (Figures 1.48 and 5.15). Varicosities, dilated tortuous veins, are common and can mimic a vascular lesion such as a hemangioma, a benign tumor composed of blood vessels or a vascular malformation.

      The floor of the mouth is examined next. In the anterior portion on each side are the sublingual plicae or carunculae, slightly raised, cylindrical structures running from the midline to each side and housing openings of the sublingual glands (Figure 1.49). At the most anterior portion of each is a more raised nodule with an opening to the submandibular gland (Wharton duct). The submandibular gland can be milked to see a less clear but not milky solution expressed from the duct. A stone in the duct can prevent the saliva from exiting. If the patient is edentulous and the mandible is greatly resorbed, then the floor of the mouth can appear dome-shaped as a tumor-like mass rising above the mandible and mimicking disease (Figure 1.50). Sometimes, hyperplastic, reactive oral tonsillar tissue may be noted in the floor of the mouth (Figure 1.51). These may be associated with pseudocysts/oral lymphoepithelial cysts.

Figure 1.49. Normal floor of the mouth showing bilateral sublingual plicae or carunculae. At the medial aspect of each is the opening of Wharton duct, green arrow.	Figure 1.50. Floor of the mouth mimicking disease by presenting as a swelling in two patients who have edentulous portions of the mandible which has resorbed to a great degree.	Figure 1.51. Hyperplastic, reactive oral tonsil in the floor of the mouth. In the normal state, it would not be apparent. Pseudocysts/oral lymphoepithelial cysts may occur in oral tonsils, that may also be distributed in the palate and buccal mucosa.

      With a dental mirror and by direct viewing, the unattached and attached gingivae should be noted (Figure 1.52). The mucogingival line should be seen and the amount of attached tissue noted. In some patients, particularly in the earlier years, retrocuspid papillae may be seen (Figure 1.53). They are found on the attached gingivae of the mandible, often bilaterally, lingual to the cuspid or canine teeth as raised, nodules, usually 0.5 mm, with a broad base (sessile) or a pedunculated base (emanating from a stalk) (Figure 1.54). Normal structures in these individuals, they may regress with age, require no treatment, but may be mistaken for disease.

Figure 1.52. View of the labial and buccal vestibules, gingivae and the teeth. Note the mucogingival line, the freni, and the slight melanin pigmentation of the gingivae. The papilla of Stensen’s duct is also visible.	Figure 1.53. Retrocuspid papilla; here, a reddish, slightly-raised sessile small nodule behind or lingual to the lower cuspid tooth.	Figure 1.54. Retrocuspid papillae in two patients. They are bilateral, green arrows. They may be mistaken for disease.

      On the anterior gingivae, usually of the mandible, a similar condition may be found at the mucogingival line. Called gingival fibrous nodules or gingival nodules, they are small, pink, nodules with a sessile base composed of normal collagen (Figures 1.55 and 1.56). They may be single or multiple and, if removed, may recur. But they are normal structures that can mimic disease.

Figure 1.55. Gingival fibrous nodules at the mucogingival junction on the attached gingiva in two separate patients. Considered normal structures, they are composed of dense collagen like a fibroma. The larger lesion at the top recurred after removal.	Figure 1.56. Gingival fibrous nodules at the mucogingival junction on the attached gingiva in two separate patients. They can be multiple as in the bottom picture.

      Another condition to be found on the gingiva is gingival mandibular ridges. Found on the molar attached gingivae, they appear as small, white to pink, linear slightly raised lesions (Figure 1.57). With a similar histology to the retrocuspid papilla and the gingival nodule, they also are normal structures that can be mistaken for disease.

      Next, the teeth can be examined. One checks for any dental defect, malocclusion (Figure 1.58), or missing teeth (Figure 1.59).

      By doing a routine, methodical, systematic oral examination, deviations from normal should be observed. Astute observations lead to proper diagnosis and treatment.

Figure 1.57. Gingival reticular ridges of the mandible in two patients. The top photo shows that the ridges are usually bilateral. The ridges are composed of dense collagen and are considered to be normal structures that may be mistaken for disease.	Figure 1.58. Malocclusion with the maxillary left lateral and the posterior maxillary teeth in crossbite.	Figure 1.59. Missing maxillary lateral incisors in a youngster. Also note the stained dental plaque at the cervical margins.